Items

• racism

  Racism is a system of power and inequality in which racial categories are used or to assign superiority and inferiority, resulting in discrimination, exclusion and unequal access to resources and opportunities.
• racist legitimation

  Beliefs in subordinate groups' inferiority justifying unequal treatment, making domination seem natural (e.g., in colonialism, genocide).
• research

  The systematic, methodical investigation of social life aimed at producing knowledge about society. In sociology, research encompasses both quantitative methods (surveys, statistical analysis, experiments) rooted in positivist epistemology and qualitative methods (ethnography, interviews, textual analysis) rooted in interpretivist and constructionist epistemologies. Modern sociological research is defined by attention to how social reality is broken down into data, collected, analysed, and framed to produce knowledge, with growing recognition that the researcher's own social position shapes the inquiry. (Contini, 2024).
• residential segregation

  Refers to the physical separation of different social groups into different neighbourhoods, usually based on race, class, ethnicity resulting in unequal living conditions and unequal life chances.
• resistance

  Refers to the actions, behaviours, or ideas through which individuals or groups challenge, oppose or refuse domination, inequality or social control.
• resource extraction

  Industrial activities such as mining or oil drilling that remove natural resources from the earth and often transform landscapes and ecosystems (Peša, 2022).
• resource scarcity

  Refers to the limited availability of natural, material, and social assets (such as food, land, income, time, and prestige) that are necessary for maintaining life or a desired quality of life (Institute of Development Studies).
• sampling

  Refers to the process of selecting a manageable subset (a "sample") of individuals from a larger population to participate in a study (Bhattacherjee, 2012, Wagner, Kawulich, & Garner, 2012).
• social division of labour

  Refers to the specialization of tasks, where work is broken down into specific roles rather than performed entirely by one individual, driving economic productivity and social solidarity (University Oxford, 2026).
• social action

  It is associated with the work of Max Weber and described as when a subject engages in a particular choice of action because of the meaning it holds for them (Steward & Zaaiman, 2014)’.
• social activism

  Refers to the intentional, collective effort to bring about social, political, economic, or environmental change by reforming or challenging existing institutions, behaviours, and power structures (Atlantis Press, 2026).
• social capital

  Refers to the resources and benefits individuals or groups gain through social relationships, networks and connections.
• social class

  Social stratification of individuals based on wealth, income, occupation, and access to power; in Marx, defined by relationship to the means of production.
• social facts

  Social facts are ideas, feelings, and ways of behaving that possess the remarkable property of existing outside the consciousness of the individual.Social facts are external (exists outside us), coercive (influences our behavior), diffuse (is all around us) and we often are not conscious of it (Ferrante, et al., 2016).
• social identity

  Refers to a person's sense of who they are based on their membership in social groups, such as race, gender, class, religion, nationality and/or occupation.
• social inequality

  The unequal distribution of resources, opportunities and power among individuals or groups within society (Giddens, 2009).
• social institutions

  Established and organized systems of social behavior with a particular and recognized purpose (Family, religion and the economy are all examples of social institutions). (Anderson & Taylor, 2020). A set of organized beliefs and rules that establishes how a society will attempt to meet its basic social needs (Kendall, 2011).
• social interaction

  Everyday encounters in which people communicate, interpret, and respond to each other’s words and actions (Ferrante, et al., 2016).
• social issues

  This is a matter that can be explained only by factors outside an individual's control and immediate environment.
• social movements

  A collective, organized effort to promote or resist social change through protest, advocacy, or civil disobedience
• social stratification

  The hierarchical arrangement of social strata ranking individuals by status, power, or access to resources.
• social theory

  A set of ideologies or analytical frameworks used to understand and explain patterns of social relationships, institutions and social change (Inglis, 2019).
• socialisation

  The lifelong process through which individuals learn and internalize the values, norms, behaviours, and social skills of their culture, enabling them to function as members of society. Modern sociologists emphasize that socialisation is a bidirectional process, not merely the imposition of culture onto a passive individual, but a co-creative interaction in which individuals (including children) actively shape and negotiate social meanings through engagement with agents of socialisation such as family, peers, schools, and media.
• socialism

  Socialist means the system under which the economic system is controlled and regulated by the government so as to ensure welfare and equal opportunity to the people in a society. The idea of socialism is first introduced by Karl Marx and Fredric Engles in their book, ‘The Communist Manifesto’ (Sehon, 2024).
• sociological imagination

  A point of view that allows us to identify seemingly remote and impersonal social forces and connect them to our biographies (Ferrante, et al., 2016).