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• domination

  The exercise of power by one group over another through control of material and symbolic resources. Domination refers to a form of power where one individual or group is able to control, influence or impose their will on others often in a systematic and sustained way.
• double consciousness

  A concept describing the internal conflict experienced by marginalized groups when navigating identities shaped by oppression and social exclusion (Du Bois, 2003).
• economic capital

  Refers to the material and financial resources that an individual, group or class of people possess, which can be directly converted to money or used to generate income and power.
• economic exploitation

  Extraction of labor, resources, or value from one group by another without fair compensation.
• elites

  A small group holding disproportionate power, wealth, and influence over institutions.
• emigrant

  A person who is leaving their country of origin to live in another country either permanently or temporarily.
• energy poverty

  Limited or constrained access to modern forms of energy such as electricity or clean fuels needed for basic household activities (Van Niekerk et al., 2022).
• energy transition

  The process of shifting from unsafe or unsustainable energy sources to cleaner, safer and more sustainable forms of energy.
• environment–society relationship

  The interaction between human societies and the natural environment, including how social systems, economic activities and cultural practices shape environmental change (Harper, 2017).
• environmental justice

  The principle that all people should have equal protection from environmental harm and equal access to environmental resources (Wong, 2020).
• epidemiology

  Refers to the study of the incidents and distribution of disease and illness in different groups of people, why they occur, and how they are distributed in terms of time, place, and person (The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology, 1984).
• epistemology

  In philosophy this concept is used technically to mean the theory of knowledge and how researchers come to have knowledge of the external world (The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology, 1984).
• equilibrium

  Society or social systems are said to be in equilibrium when the forces acting within them are balanced and society is subsequently stable (The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology, 1984).
• ethnicity

  A shared cultural heritage — language, religion, traditions, history — distinguishing one group from another; primarily cultural rather than physical (Gutiérrez Chong, 2025).
• ethnocentrism

  It is the belief that one's own culture or ethnic group is the most correct, normal or superior and that other cultures should be evaluated according to its standards.
• extended family

  Refers to a social unit comprising of parents living with their children and other relatives (The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology, 1984).
• family

  Refers to a social institution that binds people together through blood, marriage or social norms (Ferrante, et al., 2016).
• feminism

  A body of theory and political movement advocating gender equality and eliminating patriarchal structures, analyzing how gender intersects with class, race, and ethnicity (Ollenburger & Moore, 1991).
• forces of production

  Is a concept used within Marxist sociology, and refers to both the material worked on and the tools and techniques employed in production of economic goods (The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology, 1984).
• foreign aid

  Financial or technical assistance provided by governments or international organizations to support development in poorer countries (Carlsson, Somo Lekae & Van de Walle, 1997).
• foreigner

  Is an individual who is socially and legally recognised as an outsider because they do not belong to the national, cultural or political community of the society in which they reside.
• gender

  The socially constructed roles, behaviors, identities, and expectations associated with being male, female, or non-binary; distinct from biological sex (Ollenburger & Moore, 1991).
• gender based violence

  Refers to any harmful act perpetrated against a person’s will that is based on socially ascribed (gender) differences between males and females (European Institute of Gender Equality, 2026).
• global north

  Refers to the world’s wealthy, developed and industrialised nations, predominantly located in Europe, North America and developed parts of Asia, alongside Australia.
• global south

  Regions in Africa, Latin America, and Asia sharing histories of colonialism and economic dependency.